The Yogasūtra-s of Patañjali, dating from 400 A.D. [1], is the text that defines and incorporates Classical Yoga as an orthodox school of Indian philosophy (Āstika). Basically, it consists of adapting Sāṃkhya's metaphysics to Yoga practices that most likely were already used in other marginal philosophical, soteriological and sectarian contexts. For this reason, several sources argue in favor of the thesis that Yogasūtra-s is an attempt by the Brahmanic intellectual elites to appropriate[2] ideas that proliferated outside their circles, specifically in-between Śramaṇa-s and Buddhists.
The authorship of the text is attributed to Patañjali, meanwhile whoever this figure was is not a linear subject[3]. Mythological figure? Grammarian? Āyurveda doctor? Classical Yoga encoder? All in one? There is even speculation as to whether there was even such a Patañjali and whether the name would not designate a mere personal-honorary title used at the time, as it seemed to be common.
Because it was acclaimed as a Āstika School of Philosophy it was presented to the british, during the British Raj, as a reference text of Hindu Culture, consequently, it gained extreme popularity. Having been the subject of numerous translations, it has become one of the best known texts in the Yoga Tradition, in India and especially in the West. Among this list of translations and interpretations, we will take into account, above all: in English, those of G. Feuerstein[4], B.K.S. Iyengar[5] and E. Bryant[6]; in Portuguese, those by Stobbaerts[7] and Glória Arieira[8].
Formal structure of the Yogasūtra-s
Formally, the text consists of 196 sūtra-s that span trough four chapters or pāda-s: (1) Samādhi, which deals with the state of Yoga; (2) Sādhana, on the practice that leads to the state of Yoga; (3) Vibhūti, still on the practice of Yoga, continuing with the results to which it leads; and (4) Kaivalya, a kind of synthesis of the three previous Pāda-s.
Concerning this structure: first, that the division into chapters seems to be artificial; second, recently aroused the question whether the fourth chapter has been added a posteriori and that, originally, only the first three were included. Concomitantly, there are also studies that point to the idea of the original version being composed by the set of sūtra-s and respective comments, traditionally attributed to Vyāsa, contrary to the dominant assertion that the comments came later and that the work, originally, was composed only by the sūtra-s. Philipp Maas[9] defends this idea, arguing that by the syntactic analysis, both the sūtra-s and comments, seem to have been written by the same person. In this case, the most correct name to give to the work will be Pātañjalayogaśāstra[10].
Theoretical basis of Yogasūtra-s
The organization of the text is admirable, due to structure and concatenated sequencing of theoretical assumptions with practical approaches. It starts by presenting Yoga and defining it, as a "state" or "end".
अथ योगानुशासनम् ॥१॥
atha yogānuśāsanam ||1||
योगश्चित्तवृत्तिनिरोधः ॥२॥
yogaścittavṛttinirodhaḥ ||2||
तदा द्रष्टुः स्वरूपेऽवस्थानम् ॥३॥
tadā draṣṭuḥ svarūpe'vasthānam||3||
Now Yoga instruction begins. 1.
Yoga is the cessation of [the identification with] mental oscillations.
2. Then there is the permanence in the essential nature of the Observer-Witness. 3.
Therefore, Yoga as a state happens when the oscillations or movements (vṛtti-s) of the mind stop. Or in other words, when the subject ceases to identify with those registers, thoughts and emotions, starting to act as an impassive Witness of himself, taken as the real essence. The problem comes with the following caveat: that Yoga is not the prevalent “cognitive” state among people, on the contrary.
वृत्तिसारूप्यमितरत्र ॥४॥
vṛttisārūpyamitaratra ||4||
Otherwise, there is identification [of the Observer and] with mental oscillations. 4.
So we usually find ourselves not in a state of unity or concentration, but in a state of duality and dispersion, because we systematically identify ourselves with the contents of our mind, the so-called vṛtti-s. Having set the objective and the problem that blocks access to it, all the theoretical foundations underlying the phenomena in question are presented. The theoretical analysis, in general, is divided into two approaches: (1) the study of the reasons why we are in such state of dispersion; and (2) the description of the different stages of cognitive refinement up to the ultimate Samādhi or Yoga.
As for the first point, the idea is that the oscillations or modifications of the mind, the vṛtti-s, contradicted or not by the subject, are of five types: pramāṇa or correct knowledge; viparyaya or incorrect knowledge; vikalpa or imagination-fantasy; nidrā or deep sleep; and smṛti or memory. The first type of oscillation generates beneficial karma, the remaining four generate detrimental karma, and mental oscillations are therefore categorized as non-painful and painful (although they all perpetuate universal suffering, remember).
The distinction is drawn between an agitated mind, cittavikṣepa, and a calm mind, cittaprasādana, listing the facts that contribute to each of these conditions. For the first we have: pain or duḥkha; feeling of misery or daurmanasya; body tremor or ejayatva aṅgam; inspiration or śvāsa and exhalation or praśvāsa (I.31). The second condition is achieved by internally contemplating feelings such as: friendship or maitrī; compassion or karuṇā; joy or muditā; and for neutrality towards the binomials happiness-misery or sukha-duḥkha and virtue-vice or puṇya-apuṇya (I.33).
These factors are previously associated with a set of nine obstacles to the practice of Yoga, the antarāyā-s, which in essence are mental projections: illness or vyādhi; mental inefficiency or styāna; hesitation or saṃśaya; negligence or pramāda; laziness or ālasya; incontinence or avirati; fallacious perception or bhrānti-darśana; the state of not reaching any stage of yoga or alabdha bhūmikatva; and instability or anavasthitatva (I.31).
What keeps alive the subject's flame to identificate with the oscillations of the mind, is a major disrupting factor, ignorance or avidyā, from which four more disruptive factors derive, self-concept or asmitā, attachment or rāga, aversion or dveṣa and fear of death or abhiniveśa. These are the so-called five kleśa-s, and there are those who consider that there is simply one, ignorance, plus four subsidiaries. From II.1 to II.9 there is a detailed explanation of the kleśa-s. The fundamental idea to keep in mind is that the reservoir of karma, in the mind, originates from the kleśa-s. If there is no awareness of the individual to the existence and action of the kleśa-s, lacking the capacity to discriminate (viveka) that everything is suffering, experiences of satisfaction and frustration will continue to generate, in loop, causing the present and future condition.
परिणामतापसंस्कारदुःखैर्गुणवृत्तिविरोधाच्च दुःखमेव सर्वं विवेकिनः ॥१५॥ pariṇāmatāpasaṃskāraduḥkhairguṇavṛttivirodhācca duḥkhameva sarvaṃ vivekinaḥ ||15||
For people capable of discrimination (viveka), everything is considered painful because of the suffering resulting from their own painful actions and experiences, the latent [psychological] impressions (saṃskāra-s) and the changes derived from conflicts between guṇa-s. 15.
Given this, what can be done? Avoid suffering that has not yet manifested itself, therefore, that has not yet been affected due to all the previous processes.
द्रष्टृदृश्ययोः संयोगो हेयहेतुः ॥१७॥
draṣṭṛdṛśyayoḥ saṃyogo heyahetuḥ ||17||
The identification of the observer-witness with the observed-witnessed is the cause of the suffering that must be avoided. 17.
The basis of suffering is analyzed: the systematic identification of the subject with the contents of the mind. Existing the union of the one who sees with what is seen (subject-object), through all the previous mechanics, cause-effect is generated, therefore suffering. Hence, it is this identification that must be eliminated, in order to eliminate suffering in the sequence. Another way of saying the same thing: one must eliminate the ignorance that creates the identity between subject and object. To elaborate, Patañjali explains the nature of what is seen, guṇa-s, and the “true” nature of the subject (II.20).
द्रष्टा
दृशिमात्रः शुद्धोऽपि प्रत्ययानुपश्यः ॥२०॥
draṣṭā
dṛśimātraḥ śuddho'pi pratyayānupaśyaḥ ||20||
The observer is a mere witness. Pure, contemplates [witness] mental fluctuations. 20.
In short, the witness is pure conscience. Alluding to the death of the ego, perhaps, it is said that "this witness is like the undead dead".
Regarding the second point, Patañjali distinguishes between Samādhi with karmic residues and without karmic residues, the seconde being an improvement over the first. The analysis of Samādhi in the Yogasūtra-s is complex and susceptible to dense interpretations, so we will try to simplify as much as possible, aware of the risks (who knows benefits) that this entails, capturing “only” the most unanimous and less dense ideas.
The first type of Samādhi, Saṃprajñāta, Savikalpa or Sabīja, occurs supported in cognitive vehicles, hence it causes the formation of karmic residues. The cognitive vehicles that support this Saṃprajñāta Samādhi are: logical thinking or vitarka; analysis or vicāra; satisfaction or ānanda; and self-concept or asmitā. In other words, here Samādhi takes place with support in an object of meditation. The second type of Samādhi, Asaṃprajñāta, Nirvikalpa or Nirbīja, is an improvement over the previous one as it occurs without the need for a cognitive vehicle. Therefore, without resorting to a meditative object, through pure meditation, this Samādhi leads to the knowledge of pure Consciousness or Puruṣa, generically, the Transcendental or Absolute Self. It’s a Samādhi without resorting to cognitive (or psychological) sediments, so it does not entail the formation of karma.
Patañjali also says that the state of calm and transformation inherent to Samādhi, before total liberation, causes changes in the body and mind. This is the theme of almost the entire third chapter, each of the powers (paranormals) that the subject acquires when he reaches the unidirected mind in a given focus.
उदानजयाज्जलपङ्ककण्टकादिष्वसङ्ग उत्क्रान्तिश्च ॥३९॥
udānajayājjalapaṅkakaṇṭakādiṣvasaṅga utkrāntiśca ||39||
By conquering the [vital wind] udāna, one obtains the power to levitate and not to come in contact with water, mud and thorns, etc., and the ability to voluntarily leave the body at death. 39.
श्रोत्राकाशयोः सम्बन्धसंयमाद्दिव्यं श्रोत्रम् ॥४१॥
śrotrākāśayoḥ sambandhasaṃyamāddivyaṃ śrotram ||41||
By practicing saṃyama on the relationship between space (ākāśa) and the power of hearing, divine [supra-physical] hearing is achieved. 41.
However, he underlines that these are powers in the world but obstacles to Samādhi (III.38). Reinforcing that Kaivalya is intended, this is the “identity” between the mind and the whole.
सत्त्वपुरुषयोः शुद्धिसाम्ये कैवल्यमिति ॥५५॥
sattvapuruṣayoḥ śuddhisāmye kaivalyamiti||55||
Kaivalya [or Isolation] is achieved when there is equality of purity between buddhisattva (purified intellect) and puruṣa (Transcendental or Absolute Si). 55.
Practical Proposal of the Yogasūtra-s
Knowing why we are unable to achieve what is intended to be achieved, follows the set of practices and techniques that aim to solve the problem. Thus, as Patañjali advances with theoretical dilemmas, he proposes related practical solutions. In order to move from a conditioned state of non-enlightenment to a non-conditioned state of Enlightenment, we can resort to a series of strategies with more or less scope, and more or less technical specificity. What is essential to retain is that these strategies and techniques work together.
Before the practical proposals, are stressed a set of qualifications that must be present in those who aim to attain Samādhi (I.20): faith or śraddhā, vigor or vīrya, remembrance or smṛti, absorption or samādhi, and legitimate knowledge or prajñā. These necessarily derive from the aspiration (saṃvegā) that the subject must have in order to reach Samādhi, an aspiration that must be intense (I.21). In fact, involvement in practice can be (I.22) weak (mṛdu) medium (madhya) or strong (adhimātra).
In terms of techniques, we can list several alternatives. The first option presented by Patañjali is perhaps the basis of all practice, and is grounded on the assumption that the "control" of the oscillations or movements of the mind occurs, primarily, through detachment (Vairāgya) and repetition or practice continuous (Abhyāsa). It is assumed that it is the joint practice of these two aspects that leads to the knowledge of the true essence or of the absolute being "resident" in the individual, paravairāgya.
अभ्यासवैराग्याभ्यां तन्निरोधः ॥१२॥
abhyāsavairāgyābhyāṃ
tannirodhaḥ ||12||
There is a cessation of this [the five types of mental oscillation or vṛtti-s] through uninterrupted practice (abhyāsa) and [application of] detachment (vairāgya). 12.
Another option for reaching Samādhi is through surrender to Īśvara. This consists of dedicating all actions to Īśvara, a kind of personification of the Whole. To do this, we must learn to recognize Īśvara in absolutely everything that exists (I.24 to I.28), however, a more direct means will pass through the recognition that one of the characteristics of Īśvara is being Oṃ, Praṇava.
A third alternative presented by Patañjali, seen by some as a “shortcut”, is kriyāyoga, based on the concerted application of three principles (II.1): tapas or austerity; svādhyāya or self-study, based on recognized literature; and devotion to the lord or īśvarapraṇidhāna. This option is specifically associated with the objective of mitigating kleśa-s or suffering.
Another constant premise is that kleśa-s and all subsequent disruptive phenomena are eliminated through meditation and cultivation of discernment or viveka. Meditation, together with the exhalation and retention of breath, forms the bridge (I.34-39) to move from a restless mind to a peaceful mind. In this regard, it is proposed to meditate contemplating: (1) a superior perception of objects (pravṛttiḥ viṣayavatī); (2) the light of consciousness (jyotiṣmatī) free from grief (viśokā); (3) liberation from desires (vītarāga); (4) mental oscillations from dreams (svapna) and sleep (nidrā); (5) something desirable (yathābhimata). Viveka can be configured as the ability to discriminate between what is real and what is non-real, and it can be both a practice and a consequence. When the subject manages to realize that everything is suffering, even what causes pleasurable sensations, he is acting according to viveka, for example.
What is the most emblematic way to free ourselves from the ignorance that leads to the identity between subject and object, allowing us to come to viveka, discriminative knowledge? It’s Aṣṭāṅgayoga or Yoga of Eight Auxiliaries, for sure.
योगाङ्गाऽनुष्ठानादशुद्धिक्षये ज्ञानदीप्तिराविवेकख्यातेः ॥२८॥
yogāṅgā'nuṣṭhānādaśuddhikṣaye jñānadīptirāvivekakhyāteḥ ||28||
After the destruction of impurities by the practice of Yoga, emerges the luminosity of knowledge that culminates in discriminative discernment. 28.
The Eight Assistants are scrutinized from II.29 to III.7 regarding the description, organization, technical execution and benefits. It begins with the Ethical Principles and Self-Disciplines, Yama-s and Nyama-s, describing the five elements of each one, proposing as a general feature of practice to counter the actions and thoughts that oppose them. The concrete results of the mastery of each Yama and Nyama are observed. It follows āsana (II.46), simply defined as a comfortable posture to practice, and the results of its application. The third auxiliary is Prāṇāyāma, also presented with parsimony (II.49-53). There are four types or movements of Prāṇāyāma: external, internal, suspension; and a last one that refers to the subtle phase of Breathing Modulation, subsequent to the previous movements. After the results of the application of Prāṇāyāma are presented, comes Pratyāhāra, which corresponds to the instruction about the need to internalize the senses (II.54). The remaining three auxiliaries are considered internal in relation to the previous ones, however, external in relation to the final state of Liberation. These aṅga-s, Dhāraṇā concentration, Dhyāna meditation, and Samādhi meditative absorption, form the three stages of one technique, Saṃyama. Patañjali intends to instill that there is a degree of depth in the meditative technique, culminating with the idea that it is the achievement of mastery in Saṃyama that leads to Viveka, the clarity of knowledge.
There’s a common interpretation that there is a linear and gradual rise in these aṅga-s, from the first to the last, but it is not always consensual. In fact, the idea that seems to fit better points that they are simply interconnected as a technical whole that must act simultaneously. It is stressed, the cement that glues all these aṅga-s, and the previous alternatives, is the meditative attitude, which is very clear in sūtra I.32.
तत्प्रतिषेधार्थमेकतत्त्वाभ्यासः ॥३२॥
tatpratiṣedhārthamekatattvābhyāsaḥ ||32||
To neutralize these [distractions], [its prescribed] the continuous practice of concentrating on a single object. 32.
Joel Machado
(Excerpt from the thesis Yoga: between Psychology and Soteriology)
jehoel@gmail.com
#yogaandmysticism #joelmachado #yoga #mystic #meditation #contemplation #patañjali #classicalyoga #rājayiga #yogasūtra
[1] Maas, 2008, 2013; Mallinson & Singleton, 2017: p.xvi-xvii.
[2] Ibidem.
[3] White, 2014.
[4] 1989.
[5] 2002.
[6] 2019.
[7] 2008.
[8] 2017; Regarding this translation and interpretation, it should be noted that it occurs, admittedly, in a Vedānta tone.
[9] Maas (2008, 2013).
[10] Pātañjalayogaśāstra is presented by Mallinson and Singleton (2017: p.xvi), citing Maas, as a diminutive of Pātañjala-Yoga-śāstra- Sāṃkhya-Pravacana, “Authorized Exhibition of Yoga originated in Patañjali, and the Mandatory teaching of Sāṃkhya”. Indeed, a title that, besides being present in the colophones of the original manuscripts, will clearly denote the intention of amalgamating Sāṃkhya and Yoga.
